ARBIND KUMAR BLOG

THE GURJARA-PRATIHARA DYNASTY

The GURJARA-PRATIHARA DYNASTY , instrumental in containing ARAB armies moving east of the INDUS RIVER , ruled much of Northern INDIA from the mid-8th century to 11th century .Their capitals had been AVANTI and KANNAUJ . Common languages were PRAKRIT and SANSKRIT . They followed HINDUISM . It was established by NAGABHATTA I in 730 AD and lasted in 1036 AD during the time of king YASAPALA or JASAPALA .They were preceded by the CHAVDA DYNASTY and VARMAN DYNASTY of KANNAUJ. NAGABHATTA I defeated the ARAB army under JUNAID and TAMIN in the CALIPHATE campaign in INDIA . Under NAGABHATTA II , the GURJARA-PRATIHARAS became the most powerful Dynasty in Northern INDIA . His son RAMABHADRA ruled briefly before being succeeded by his son, MIHIR BHOJA . Under MIHIR BHOJA and his successor MAHENDRAPALA I , GURJARA-PRATIHARA DYNASTY reached its peak and prosperity of power . Now its territory stretched from the border of SINDH in the west to BENGAL in the east and from HIMALAYAS in the north to area past the NARMADA river in the south .This expansion of the empire triggered a tripartite power struggle with the RASHTRAKUTA and PALA empire for control of the INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT . PRATIHARA now took the title of MAHARAJADHIRAJA of ARYAVARTA . However , GURJARA–PRATIHARA DYNASTY was weakened by dynastic strife . It was further diminished as a result of great raid led by the RASHTRAKUTA ruler INDRA III in 916 AD , who sacked KANNAUJ .Their feudatories became more and more powerful . By the end of the 10th century , the Dynasty was limited to the GANGETIC DOAB only . And in 1018 AD , MAHMUD of GHAZNI had driven out its last ruler RAJYAPALA from KANNAUJ .

ORIGIN OF GURJARA-PRATIHARAS

The origin of the GURJARA-PRATIHARA DYNASTY has been a topic of debate among historians . It is said that the GURJARA was a tribe and the PRATIHARA its clan .The rulers of this Dynasty used the self-designation PRATIHARA as their clan . And they never referred to themselves as GURJARAS .They claimed their descent from LUXUMANA , the legendary hero of the RAMAYANA , who acted as a PRATIHARA (Door Keeper) for his brother SRI RAMA .The term GURJARA-PRATIHARA occurs only once and i.e in the RAJOR inscription of a feudatory ruler named MATHANADEVA , who has described himself as GURJARA-PRATIHARA .To one school of thought , GURJARA was the name of the territory originally ruled by the PRATIHARAS . Gradually the term was used to denote the people of the territory .The proponents of the foreign origin theory point out that the GURJARA-PRATIHARAS suddenly emerged around 6th century AD in Northern INDIA , shortly after the HUNAS invasion in that region . So, they appeared to be fusion of ALCHON HUNS (White Huns) and native INDIAN elements . However , the critics of the foreign origin theory argue that there is no conclusive evidence of their foreign origin . According to AGNIVANSHA legend given in PRITHVIRAJ RASO , written by the court poet CHAND BARDAI , the PRATIHARAS , PARAMARA , CHAUHAN and CHALUKYA dynasties originated from a sacrifical fire-pit (agnikunda) at MOUNT ABU .The SAGAR-TAL (GWALIOR) inscription of MIHIR BHOJA says that SUMITRI (son of SUMITRA) i.e LUXUMANA acted as door-keeper for his elder brother SRI RAMA as he defeated MEGHANADA , the son of the Demon King RAVANA . A historian like K. A. NILKANTA SHASTRI had opined that the ancestors of PRATIHARAS served the RASHTRAKUTAS , and the term ‘PRATIHARA’ was derived from the title of their office in the RASHTRAKUTA court .

MIHIR BHOJA

MIHIR BHOJA or BHOJA I was the PRATIHARA Emperor from 836 AD to 885 AD . He inherited a weak regime from his father RAMABHADRA . However , due to his capability and valour , he transformed his kingdom into a large and prosperous empire . BHOJA was a devotee of LORD VISHNU . And he adopted the title of ADIVARAH , as inscribed in some of his coins . One of the outstanding Emperor of the 9th century , he ranks with DHURVA DHARAVARSHA and DHARMAPALA .When it was at peak , BHOJA’S Empire extended to the NARMADA RIVER in the south , the SUTLEJ RIVER in the northwest , and upto BENGAL in the east . During his reign , his capital was KANNAUJ , then referred as PANCHALA . He was a bitter enemy of the ARAB-ISLAMIC invaders . In the early eighth century , ARABS fought off and on to take over SINDH . IMRAN ibn-MUSA , who governed SINDH , tried to expand ARAB rule to nearby areas .The powerful BHOJA king fought back and repulsed them from fort of SINDAN , pushing the ARABS out of KUTCH between 833 AD and 842 AD . Later on , the ARABS lost the best part of SINDH . A 10th-century PERSIAN geographic text , HUDUD ul-ALAM , has stated about the supremacy of the powerful ‘Rai of Qinnauj‘ whose mighty army had 150,000 strong cavalry and 800 war elephants . MIHIR BHOJA first consolidated his territory by crushing the rebellious feudatories in RAJASTHAN , before turning his attention against the old enemies the PALAS and RASHTRAKUTAS . He then launched his campaign to conquer MALWA , DECCAN and GUJARAT . BHOJA led a cavalry raid into GUJARAT against against DHURVA II , while supporting his younger brother . Although the raid was repulsed by DHURVA II , yet BHOJA was able to retain dominion over parts of GUJARAT and MALWA . BHOJA had successfully destroyed the GUJARAT RASHTRAKUTA DYNASTY . Apart from that , he was a great Deplomat . The Kingdom which were conquered and acknowledged his suzerainty included TRAVANI , VALLA , MADA , ARYA , GUJARATRA , LATA PARVARTA and CHANDALA of BUNDELKHAND . KALHANA’S RAJATARANGINI states that the territory of BHOJA extended up to KASHMIR in the north . He conquered PUNJAB by defeating ruling THAKKIYAKA Dynasty . After the death of DEVAPALA , BHOJA defeated the PALA Emperor , NARAYANAPALA and expanded his boundaries eastward into PALA-held territories near GORAKHPUR .

NOTE : THE SOURCES OF THE BLOG ARE TEXT BOOKS AND OTHER WRITTEN MATERIALS ON THE SUBJECT .

TO BE CONTINUED ……………….

THE RASHTRAKUTA EMPIRE

The RASHTRAKUTA EMPIRE was founded by DANTIDURGA around 753 AD . Its capital had been MANYAKHETA for almost two centuries or so . When the empire was at its peak , the RASHTRAKUTAS ruled from the GANGA-YAMUNA DOAB in the north to CAPE COMORIN in the South .The earlier rulers of this Dynasty were HINDU , but later rulers were strongly influenced by JAINISM. The earliest known RASHTRAKUTA inscription is a 7th-century copper plate describing about their rule from MANAPUR. MANAPUR was a city in Central or Western INDIA .They ruled from 753 AD to 982 AD . But several controversies existed regarding the origin of the early RASHTRAKUTAS , their native homeland , and their language . Common languages of the people were KANNADA and SANSKRIT .They followed HINDUISM , JAINISM and BUDDHISM . Its main rulers were DANTIDURGA (735 AD to 756 AD) and INDRA IV (973 AD to 982 AD) . It was preceded by the CHALUKYA DYNASTY . And it was succeeded by the WESTERN CHALUKYA Empire .The ELICHPUR clan was a feudatory of the BADAMI CHALUKYA . During the rule of DANTIDURGA , he overthrew the CHALUKYA king KIRTTIVARMAN II and went to build an empire in the GULBARGA region of KARNATKA .This clan came to be known as the RASHTRAKUTAS of MANYAKHETA .

THE ORIGIN OF RASHTRAKUTA EMPIRE

According to historians like A.S. ALTEKAR and SEN , the RASHTRAKUTAS became a pan-INDIA power during their reign . However, their origin has been a controversial topic . About its origin , it is said that his earliest ancestors existed during the time of Emperor ASHOKA in the 2nd century BC . Between 6th and 7th centuries , the several RASHTRAKUTA dynasties ruled small kingdoms in the Northern INDIA , Central INDIA and the DECCAN .The relationship between these medieval RASHTRAKUTAS and later RASHTRAKUTA DYNASTY of MANYAKHETA , which ruled from the 8th to 10th centuries , has been debated by historians for long . So far as the sources of the history of RASHTRAKUTAS are  concerned, it included medieval inscriptions, literature in the PALI language,  contemporaneous literature in SANSKRIT and KANNADA and the notes of ARAB travellers . Debates went on among historians over which ethnic or linguistic groups among KANNADIGA , REDDI , the MARATHA , the tribes from PUNJAB region or north western ethnic groups of INDIA could be considered as the origin of the RASHTRAKUTAS . However, they unanimously agree that the rulers of the Imperial Dynasty in the 8th and 10th century made KANNADA language as important as SANSKRIT . And the rulers encouraged literature in both languages .The RASHTRAKUTA EMPIRE included the entire KARNATKA , MAHARASTRA and parts of ANDHRA PRADESH .The SAMANGADH copper plate confirms that feudatory king DANTIDURGA of ELICHPUR, by defeating KIRTTIVARMAN II of the BADAMI CHALUKYA in 753 AD , had  taken control of its northern regions . He then helped his son-in-law , PULLAVA king NANDIVARMAN II , to regain KANCHI from the CHALUKYA and he defeated the GURJARAS of MALWA , the ruler of KALINGA , the ruler of KOSALA and the ruler of SRISAILAM . KRISHNA I , the successor of DANTIDURGA brought major parts of KARNATKA and KONKAN under his control . DHURVA DHARAVARSHA in 780 AD expanded the kingdom into an empire by encompassing all the territory between the KAVERI river and and Central INDIA . In his successful expedition to KANNAUJ , he defeated the PRATIHARAS and the PALAS of BENGAL . And lastly , he brought the EASTERN CHALUKYA and GANGAS of TALAKAD under his control .

EXPANSION AND DECLINE OF RASHTRAKUTAS

GOBINDA III , the son the RASHTRAKUTA Emperor , DHRUVA DHARAVARSHA attained success by overcoming the triangular conflict between the RASHTRAKUTAS , PRATIHARAS and PALAS for the control over the GANGETIC PLAIN .The SANJAN inscription has vividly described about his victory over the PRATIHARA Emperor NAGABHATTA II and the PALA Emperor DHARMAPALA by stating that the horses of GOVINDA III drank from the icy waters of the HIMALAYAN streams and his war elephants tasted the sacred waters of the GANGES . After conquering KANNAUJ , he moved towards south to conquer GUJARAT , KOSALA , GANGAVADI . He humbled the PULLAVAS of KANCHI , installed a ruler of his choice in VENGI and made the king of CEYLON subjugated . He received two statues as an act of submission from the king of CEYLON . Now the CHOLA , the PANDYAS and the CHERAS all paid him tribute . So, RASHTRAKUTA EMPIRE spread over the areas from CAPE COMORIN to KANNAUJ and from BANARAS to BARUCH . His son  AMOGHAVARSHA I made peace with the WESTERN GANGA DYNASTY by giving him his two daughters in marriage , and defeated the invading EASTERN CHALUKYA at VINGAVALLI and assumed the title VIRANARAYANA .His regime was peaceful . So, the arts , literature and religion developed enormously during this period . He himself was an accomplished scholar of KANNADA and SANSKRIT . Emperor GOVINDA III is compared to the ALEXANDER THE GREAT and ARJUN of MAHABHARTA , and his son AMOGHAVARSHA I was called “ASHOKA of the South”. KRISHNA II of the RASHTRAKUTA EMPIRE was a weak ruler . Revolt from the EASTERN CHALUKYA , made him loose the WESTERN DECCAN and GUJARAT . However , INDRA III recovered the Dynasty’s fortunes in Central INDIA by defeating the PARAMARA . He also defeated the PRATIHARAS and PALAS and had influence over VENGI . KRISHNA III was the last great ruler who consolidated the empire from NARMADA RIVER to KAVERI RIVER and the northern TAMIL country , while levying tribute on the king of CEYLON . But during the period of a weak ruler like KHOTTIGA AMOGHAVARSHA, the PARAMARA king SIYAKA HARSHA attacked the empire and looted its capital , MANYAKHETA .This seriously undermined the reputation of the RASHTRAKUTA EMPIRE and its decline started . His feudatory TAILAPA II from TARDAVADI PROVINCE declared himself independent . The last Emperor of the RASHTRAKUTA EMPIRE , INDRA IV committed SALLEKHANA (fasting unto death practised by JAIN monks) at SHRAVANABELAGOLA . In this way ended the RASHTRAKUTA EMPIRE .

NOTE : THE SOURCES OF THE BLOG ARE TEXT BOOKS AND OTHER WRITTEN MATERIALS ON THE SUBJECT .

TO BE CONTINUED ……………….

CULTURE DURING THE WESTERN CHALUKYAS

(A) RELIGION

With the inception of the reign of WESTERN CHALUKYAS in KARNATKA , JAINISM got setback . VAISHNAVISM grew in the CHALUKYA territory . Similarly, VAISHNAVA HINDUISM in the HOYSALA region . It created a general decreased interest in JAINISM . However , two locations of JAIN worship in the HOYSALA kingdom — 1. SHRAVANABELAGOLA ; and 2. KAMBADAHALLI still continued to be patronaged . With the spread of the philosophy of ADVAITA of ADI SHANKARACHARYA in the 8th century AD , the decline of BUDDHISM had begun . Only at DAMBAL and BALIGAVI , BUDDHA worship remained during the period of the WESTERN CHALUKYAS . But this religious transition was quite smooth and without any religious conflict . VIRASHAIVA , also known as LINGAYATS , grew with BASAVANNA in the 12th century , while worshiping LINGA (the universal symbol of SHIVA) , emphasized on KAYAKAVE KAILASA (Work is Worship) .They questioned many of the existing norms of the society such as 1. The belief in rituals ; 2. The theory of rebirth ; and 3. Supported the remarriage of widows and the marriage of unwed older women . RAMANUJACHARYA , the head of the VAISHNAVA monastery in SRIRANGAM , traveled to HOYSALA territory and preached the BHAKTI MARGA (the way of devotion) . A critique of the ADVAITA philosophy of ADI SHANKARACHARYA , RAMANUJACHARYA wrote SRIBHASHYA , a commentary on BADARAYANA’S BRAHMASUTRA . Being influenced from him , HOYSALA king VISHNUVARDHANA converted himself into VAISHNAVISM . AKKA MAHADEVI , ALLAMA PRABHU , CHENNA BASAVA , PRABHUDEVA , SIDDHARAMA , and KONDAGULI KESIRAJA wrote hundreds of poem called VACHANAS in praise of LORD SHIVA . The scholars like HARIHARA and RAGHAVANKA were also VIRASHAIVAS .

(B) SOCIETY

The rise of VEERASHAIVISM during the WESTERN CHALUKYA period was a revolutionary step and it challenged the HINDU CASTE SYSTEM . Now role of women was completely changed .They largely depended on their economic status and level of education in this relatively liberal period . Freedom was more available to the women in the royal and affluent urban families . Women participated in the fine arts . CHALUKYA queen CHANDALA DEVI and KALACHURI of KALYANI queen SOVALA DEVI were well skilled in dance and music . AKKA MAHADEVI’S devotion to the VIRASHAIVA movement is well known . Contemporary historical records suggest that some royal women were involved in administrative and martial affairs . For example , Princess AKKADEVI , the sister of sheepter King JAYASIMHA II , had fought and defeated rebellious feudals .Though present on a voluntary basis , SATI SYSTEM (immolation of her husband’s funeral pyre by wife) was totally discarded . However, SALLEKHANA (fast to death for salvation) prevailed among JAIN sects and SHOOLABRAHMA (walking into fire on an eclipse) prevailed among some other communities . BRAHMINS (the highest caste in the HINDU CASTE system) enjoyed privileged position as providers of knowledge and local justice .They were patronized by kings , nobles and wealthy aristocrats by making them grants of land and houses . So far as eating habits were concerned , BRAHMINS , JAINS , BUDDHISTS and SHAIVAS -all were strictly vegetarian . However , different kinds of meat were popular among other communities . Marketplace vendors sold meat from domesticated animals such as goats , sheep , pigs and fowl . Indoor amusement like KUSTI (Wrestling) , animals fight like cock fights , ram fights and gambling prevailed . Horse racing was a popular outdoor pastime . Schools and hospitals were built in the vicinity of temples such as HINDU MATHA , JAIN PALLI and BUDDHIST VIHARAS . Inscriptions say that the number of subjects taught varied from four to eighteen .The four most popular subjects with royal students were : 1. ECONOMICS (Vartta) ; 2. POLITICAL SCIENCE (Dandaniti) ; 3. VEDA (Trayi) ; and 4. PHILOSOPHY (Anvikshiki). These subjects were mentioned as early as in KAUTILYA’S ARTHASASTRA , an earliest book on polity and economics .

(C) LITERATURE & (D) ARCHITECTURE

It was a golden age of KANNADA literature. JAIN scholars wrote about the life of TIRTHANKARS . VIRASHAIVA poets expressed their closeness to God through pithy poems called VACHANAS . Historians have recorded nearly three hundred contemporary VACHANA poets including thirty women poets . BRAHMIN writers wrote on epics like VEDAS , PURANAS , RAMAYANA and MAHABHARATA .The most notable KANNADA scholars were RANNA , NAGAVARMA II (Grammarian) , DURGASIMHA (Minister) , and BASAVANNA (VIRASHAIVA Saint and a social reformer) . A court poet of king TAILAPA II and SATYASHRAYA , BASAVANNA was bestowed the title Kavi Chakravathy (Emperor among poets) . He had five major works to his credit . SAAHASABHEEMA VIJAYAM written on 982 AD and AJITHA PURANA  in 993 AD are his most famous works . NAGAVARMA II of king JAGADHEKAMALLA II made contributions to KANNADA literature in various subjects . KASHMIRI poet BILHANA wrote VKRAMANKADEVA CHARITA . The great INDIAN mathematician BHASKARA II flourished during this period who wrote SIDDHANTA SIROMANI . MANASOLLASA by king SOMESHVARA III (1129 AD) was an encyclopedia in SANSKRIT language meant for all sections of the society . A SANSKRIT scholar VIJNANESHWARA became famous on the field of legal literature called MITAKSHARA . It is a treatise on HINDU law .

(D) ARCHITECTURE

It was an important period of the development of DECCAN architecture . It was an admixture of the BADAMI CHALUKYA architecture of the 8th century and the HOYSALA architecture popularized in the 13th century . Sometimes called GADAG STYLE , after a number of ornate temples the WESTERN CHALUKYAS built in the doab region of TUNGABHADRA & KRISHNA river of the GADAG district of KARNATKA . In the 12th century , they built hundred of temples in the DECCAN region . They also dug PUSHKARNI (pious) wells which served as ritual bathing places . A few of them are well preserved in LUKKUNDI . Apart from temples in the GADAG district , many temples were made in different districts of KARNATKA .The VIMANA (tower over the shrine) of their temples was a compromise between the plain stepped style of the early CHALUKYAS and the decorative finish of the HOYSALAS . They popularized the use of decorative KIRTIMUKHA (Demon faces) in their sculptures .The artistic wall decor and the general sculptural idiom was DRAVIDIAN architecture .This style is sometimes called KARNATA DRAVIDA .This is one of the notable traditions in the INDIAN architecture .

NOTE : THE SOURCES OF THE BLOG ARE TEXT BOOKS AND OTHER WRITTEN MATERIALS ON THE SUBJECT .

TO BE CONTINUED ……………….

THE WESTERN CHALUKYA

The WESTERN CHALUKYA Empire or the CHALUKYA OF KALYANI ruled most of the western DECCAN , South INDIA between the 10th and 12th centuries . It was separate from the EASTERN CHALUKYA OF VENGI . Before these CHALUKYAS , the RASHTRAKUTAS of MANYAKHETA had been reigning over most of DECCAN and CENTRAL INDIA for about two countries . They ruled from 975 AD to 1184 AD .The Empire was subordinate to RASHTRAKUTA until 973 AD .Their capitals were MANYAKHETA and BASAVAKALYAN . Common languages of the people were KANNADA and SANSKRIT . And people followed HINDUISM and JAINISM .The EASTERN CHALUKYAS of VENGI were distant cousins of the WESTERN CHALUKYAS . But they were related to CHOLAS by marriage .That’s why took sides of CHOLAS whenever the WESTERN CHALUKYAS and the CHOLAS faought many wars to have control over the fertile lands of VENGI . During the rule of VIKRAMADITYA VI , in the late 11th and early 12th centuries , the WESTERN CHALUKYAS convincingly contended with (by marriage relationships) the CHOLAS and reached a peak ruling territories which spread over most of the DECCAN and as far as KAVERI river of the south . During the rule of his father SOMESHVARA I , he had led successful military campaigns as far as BIHAR and BENGAL in the east .The other major ruling families of the DECCAN like the HOYSALAS , the SEUNA YADAVAS of DEVAGIRI , the KAKATIYA DYNASTY and Southern KALACHURIS of KALYANI — all were subordinate to the WESTERN CHALUKYAS until later half of the 12th century .The fifty-year reign of VIKRAMADITYA VI , the most successful of the CHALUKYA rulers , was an important period in the history of KARNATKA . It is referred to by historians as the “CHALUKYA VIKRAMA ERA”.

ADMINISTRATION OF THE WESTERN CHALUKYA

Kingship of the WESTERN CHALUKYAS was hereditary .The administration was highly centralized . Feudatory clans such as the ALUPAS , the HOYSALAS , the KAKATIYA , the SEUNA , the southern KALACHURIS and others were allowed to rule their autonomous provinces freely .They were regularly paying annual tribute to the CHALUKYA Emperor . Excavated inscriptions reveal that  there were titles like MAHAPRADHANA Chief Minister) , DHARMADHIKARI (Chief Justice) , TADEYADANDAYAKA (Commander of reserve army) .The speciality with the then administration of the WESTERN CHALUKYAS was that the Cabinet Ministers of the government were also trained as army commanders as well as in general administrative skills .The Kingdom was divided into provinces such as BANAVASI- 12000 , NOLAMBAVADI-32000 , GODAVARI- 96000 .Thus , each name of province included the number of villages under its jurisdiction .The big provinces were called MANDALA . Many NADUS existed under a MANDALA . NADU was further divided into KAMPANAS (groups of villages) . And a village was called BADA . A MANDALA was kept under a member of of the royal family . TAILAPA II , the very founder of the WESTERN CHALUKYA DYNASTY , himself was in charge of TARDAVADI province during the RASHTRAKUTA rule . Chiefs of MANDALAS were transferable based on political developments . Moreover , women from the royal family also administered NADUS and KAMPANAS .The WESTERN CHALUKYAS minted punch-marked gold pagodas coins with KANNADA and NAGARI legends .Their heaviest gold coin was GADYANAKA weighing 96 grains .

ECONOMY DURING THE WESTERN CHALUKYA PERIOD

Agriculture was the main profession of the people .Taxes on land and produce were the main sources of revenue of the state during the period of the WESTERN CHALUKYAS . People were farming the staple crops of rice , pulses and cotton in the dry areas and cash crops like sugar cane , areca and betel were grown in the areas having sufficient rainfall .There was no record of revolts by the landless against wealthy landlords . It  shows that the condition of the labourers might be not so bad or they were not altogether organized at all . But the common practice among peasants was that they used to migrate in large numbers out of the jurisdiction of the ruler who was mistreating them . In this way , they used to drprive the ruler of revenue from their labour .Taxes were levied on mining and forest products .Tolls for the use of transport facilities further added in the revenue of the state . Fees were also collected from customs , professional licenses , and Judicial fines . Horses and salt were taxed like other commodities and agricultural produce . Land tax assessment was based on frequent surveys evaluating the quality of land and the type of produce grown there . GAVUNDAS (GOUDAS) were the local revenue officials . All arts and crafts were organized into guilds . And work was done on a corporate basis .Their only threat was the possibility of theft from BRIGANDAS (Pirates) when their ships and caravans traveled to distant lands . South INDIAN merchant guilds included the MANIGRAMAM , the NAGARATTAR , and the ANJUVANNAM . Local guilds were called NAGARAM . And the NANADESIS were traders from neighbouring kingdom .

NOTE : THE SOURCES OF THE BLOG ARE TEXT BOOKS AND OTHER WRITTEN MATERIALS ON THE SUBJECT .

TO BE CONTINUED ……………….

THE EASTERN CHALUKYA OR THE CHALUKYA OF VENGI

The EASTERN CHALUKYA or the CHALUKYA of VENGI ruled part of South INDIA between 7th and 12th centuries . They started out as the Governors of the CHALUKYA of BADAMI in the DECCAN region . During the courses of time , they started ruling over the VENGI region of the present-day ANDHRA PRADESH till 1001 AD .They continued ruling the region as feudatories of the medieval CHOLAS until 1189 AD . Their capitals had been PITAPURAM , VENGI and RAJAHMUNDRI at different time periods . Common languages of the Kingdom were TELGU , SANSKRIT and KANNADA . They followed HINDUISM as a religion . Throughout their history , they were involved in wars between the more powerful CHOLAS and WESTERN CHALUKYAS over the control of the strategically important VENGI Country . The five century long rule of EASTERN CHALUKYA over VENGI , consolidated the region into a unified whole. The TELUGU culture , literature , poetry and art reached at zenith during this period . As per the TIMMAPURAM plates of KUBJA VISHNUVARDHANA , the progenitor of the EASTERN CHALUKYA , belonged to MANAVYA GOTRA (CLAN) and were HARIPUTRAS , just like the KADAMBAS and WESTERN CHALUKYAS .The Dynasty started claiming themselves as Lunar Dynasty origins from the 11th century onward . According to this legend , the Dynasty descended from the Moon . 59 unnamed descendants of UDAYANA ruled at AYODHYA . Their descendant VIJAYADITYA was killed in a battle with TRILOCHANA PULLAVA . His pregnant widow was given shelter by VISHNUBHATTA SOMAYAJI of MUDIVEMU . She named her son VISHNUVARDHANA after her benefactor . And when the child grew old , it is said that  he became the ruler of DAKSHINAPATHA by the grace of goodness NANDA BHAGAVATI .

ADMINISTRATION & GOVERNMENT OF THE EASTERN CHALUKYA

The EASTERN CHALUKYA government was a monarchy based on the HINDU philosophy .The EASTERN CHALUKYA’S inscriptions state that the state had seven components and eighteen offices .The seven components of the state were as follows : 1. Mantri (Minister) ; 2. Purohita (chaplain)  ; 3. Senapati (Commander) ; 4. Yuvaraja (Heir-apparent) ; 5. Dauvarika (Door Keeper) ; 6. Pradhana (Chief) ; and 7. Adhyaksha (Head of Department) . On about how the administration was carried out , no information is available . However, historical records suggest that the VISHAYA and KOTTAM were the administrative subdivisions .The royal edicts were addressed to all NAIYOGI KAVALLABHAS as well as GRAMEYAKAS , the residents of the village granted . The inscriptions also refer to MANNEYAS , who held assignments of land or revenue of different villages . As we know that fratricidal wars and foreign invasions were common features of that period , they frequently disturbed the land . The entire empire was parcelled out into many principalities (estates) held by the different nobility . The most of these nobility  like the KONA HAIHAYAS , KALACHURIS , KOLANU SARONATHAS , CHAGIS , PARICHEDAS , KOTA VAMSAS , VELANADUS and KONDAPADAMATIS were closely connected by marriage ties with the EASTERN CHALUKYA . Most of their family members were raised to high position for their royal services . But the historical records also show that when the VENGI rulers were strong , the nobility paid allegiance and tribute to them and when they became weak , these nobility were ready to join hands with the enemies against the royal house .

SOCETY , RELIGION & LITERATURE DURING THE EASTERN CHALUKYA

VENGI had heterogeneous population .The CHINESE traveler HIUEN-TSANG had noted that the people were of violent character . They were of a dark complexion , but were fond of arts .The society was based on hereditary caste system . Even the BUDDHISTS and JAINS , who originally disregarded caste , had also adopted it . Besides the four traditional castes , minor communities like BOYAS and SAVARAS (both tribal group) also existed .The BRAHMINS were treated in high esteem in the society because they were proficient in VEDAS and SHASTRAS .The KSHATRIYAS were the ruling class .The KOMATIS (VAISHYAS) were a flourishing trading community .The SHUDRAS constituted the balk of the population .They were also divided into several sub-castes . HINDUISM was the main religion of the EASTERN CHALUKYA Kingdom . SHAIVISM was more popular than VAISHNAVISM .The MAHASENA temple was at CHEBROLU , became famous for its annual YATRAS and a procession of the deity’s idol from CHEBROLU to VIJAYAWADA and back . BUDDHISM , which was dominant during the SATAVAHANA period , was in decline . Most of its monasteries were by now deserted . However , HIUEN-TSANG noticed that some twenty or more BUDDHIST monasteries existed in which more than three thousand monks lived . Unlike BUDDHISM , JAINISM continued to enjoy some support from people .The king like KUBJA VISHNUVARDHANA , VISHNUVARDHANA and AMMA II patronized JAINISM . So far as literature of the period was concerned , TELUGU literature was at its zenith . NANNAYA was the poet-laureate of RAJARAJA NARENDRA in the middle of the 11th century . He was well-versed in VEDAS and SHASTRAS . He had translated the MAHABHARTA into TELUGU . NARAYANA BHATTA , who was proficient in eight languages , assisted him in his endeavour .Though incomplete , his work is considered as a masterpiece of TELUGU literature.

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EMPEROR PULAKESHIN II

PULAKESHIN II , popularly known as IMMADI PULAKESI , who ruled from 610 AD to 642 AD , was the greatest CHALUKYA EMPEROR of BADAMI . During his reign , CHALUKYAEmpire spread over most of the DECCAN region in peninsular INDIA . He was the son of KIRTTIVARMAN I , who succeeded his elder brother MANGALESHA by overthrowing him from the throne forcibly . A staunch HINDU , he had issue like ADITYAVARMAN , CHANDRADITYA , RANARAGHAVARMAN , VIKRAMADITYA I , DHARASHRAYA and JAYASIMHAVARMAN . He was a warrior of an excellent order . He suppressed a rebellion by APPAYIKA and GOVINDA . He also defeated the KADAMBAS of BANAVASI in the south . And the ALUPAS and the GANGAS of TALAKAD recognized his suzerainty . By subjugating the MAURYAS of KONKAN , he consolidated the CHALUKYA EMPIRE over the western coast of INDIA . His AIHOLE INSCRIPTION describes how he subjugated the LATAS , the MALAVAS , and the GURJARAS in the north INDIA . It also mentions about his matrimonial relations with the KADAMBAS. The most notable military achievement of PULAKESHIN II was his victory over the powerful Emperor of the Northern INDIA , HARSHA VARDHANA . He repulsed the first ARAB CALIPHATIC invasion over INDIA in 636 AD . The second CALIPH , UMAR ibn al-KHATTAB of ARAB , who was on a proselytizing mission to ISLAMIZE the whole world , appointed USMAN for this purpose . USMAN of the SAKIF tribe became successful in his mission in BAHRAYN and OMAN . After that USMAN sent a Naval expedition to capture THANE on the western coast of INDIA . But the Imperial CHALUKYAN Navy under PULAKESHIN II successfully repulsed the Naval expedition of USMAN .They returned to OMAN and thus , the first ISLAMIC raid on INDIA was defeated by the strong Naval Forces of PULAKESHIN II . Moreover , the AIHOLE INSCRIPTION states that the rulers of KOSALA and KALINGA accepted PULAKESHIN’S suzerainty without any resistance . Later , KOSALA was being called as DAKSHINA KOSALA . PULAKESHIN II had defeated the rulers of VISHNUKUNDINA kingdom , located in the lower KRISHNA-GODAVARI VALLEY .

HIUEN-TSANG’S VISIT TO PULAKESHIN’S EMPIRE

The CHINESE traveler HIUEN-TSANG visited PULAKESHIN’S Empire in 641-42 AD . He has called the CHALUKYA Emperor as the ruler of MO-HO-LA-CHA (CHINESE NAME OF MAHARASTRA) and corroborated PULAKESHIN II’S success against Emperor HARSHA VARDHANA . He had visited the PULLAVA kingdom before arriving in the CHALUKYA Empire . HIUEN-TSANG has described PULAKESHIN II as “a man of farsighted resource and astuteness who extends kindness to all”. His accounts of CHALUKYA Empire during PULAKESHIN II further states that the Emperor’s subjects were “tall and sturdy in nature and ….. carefree by nature….. grateful for kindness and revengeful for injustice”.They preferred death to disloyalty and always ready for duel if they or their families were insulted .The Emperor was war-like and loved ‘military arts’ because he was a KSHATRIYA by birth . His well disciplined troops comprised several thousands of men , several hundreds of war elephants . A peculiar thing about his war elephants was that they were intoxicated with wine before battles . Such war elephants were used for breaking the enemy’s front line . HIUEN-TSANG has also mentioned that when the Generals were defeated in wars , they were not punished . Rather they were humiliated by being ordered to wear women’s dresses or commit suicide as a matter of honour . HIUEN-TSANG has mentioned that there were five STUPAS in an around the capital city of CHALUKYAS . To him , these STUPAS were built by the earlier MAURYAN Emperor ASHOKA and were several hundred feet high . About 5,000 BUDDHIST MONKS lived in over 100 monasteries in the Empire  . He considered AJANTA CAVES as the largest monastery of the Empire .

DEFEAT OF PULAKESHIN II BY THE PAHLAVAS

The PULLAVAS were the southern neighbour of the CHALUKYAS . As we know that the VISHNUKUNDINS were subjugated by PULAKESHIN II knowing full well that the former were the allies of the PULLAVAS . It brought him in conflict with the PULLAVAS . Several battles were fought between the two without conclusive results .The AIHOLE INSCRIPTION states that the PULLAVA ruler opposed the rise of PULAKESHIN II , who forced the enemy to take shelter behind the walls of the PULLAVA capital KANCHIPURAM . On the other hand , the KASHAKUDI INSCRIPTION of the PULLAVAS states that the PULLAVA Monarch MAHENDRAVARMAN I defeated an unknown enemy at PALLALURA . However , these two accounts appear to refer to the same battle which remained inconclusive .The AIHOLE INSCRIPTION further suggests that PULAKESHIN II won over the CHOLA , the CHERA and the PANDYA kings as his allies in his struggle against the PULLAVAS . He marched towards KANCHIPURAM , but the PULLAVA  INSCRIPTIONS suggest that he suffered reverses in battles fought at PARIYALA , SURAMARA , and MANIMANGALA near KANCHIPURAM . But the PULLAVA king NARASIMHAVARMAN I , ultimately besieged the CHALUKYA capital VATAPI (BADAMI) in 642-43 AD . PULAKESHIN II was probably killed , when a PULLAVA army led by General SHIRUTTONDAR PARANJOTI captured VATAPI . In 641 AD , even during the lifetime of PULAKESHIN II , his brother VISHNU VARDHANA carved out an independent kingdom in the eastern part of CHALUKYA Empire . And thus , the CHALUKYA DYNASTY of VENGI was established .

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EARLY CHALUKYA OR CHALUKYA OF BADAMI

With the decline of GUPTA EMPIRE in the sixth century AD , the age of small kingdoms had given way to large empires in the area south of the VINDHYAS . PULAKESHIN I had established CHALUKYA DYNASTY in 543 AD by making control over BADAMI in the modern BAGALKOT district of KARNATKA . PULAKESHIN I and his descendants are referred to as CHALUKYA OF BADAMI .Their capital was VATAPI or BADAMI .They ruled over an empire that comprised the entire state of KARNATKA and most of ANDHRA PRADESH in the DECCAN . It is said that PULAKESHIN I established the city of VATAPI and performed the ASHWAMEDHA YAGNA (SACRIFICE) to assert his sovereign status . His father’s name was RANARAGA , who was possibly a vassal ruler that of KADAMBAS or the early RASHTRAKUTAS of MANYAKHETA . And his son and successor was KIRTTIVARMAN I . According two historians like J. F. FLEET and D. C. SIRCAR , the name PULAKESHIN may be a SANSKRIT-KANNADA hybrid word , meaning of which is “tiger-haired”. However , K. A. NILKANTA SHASTRI has derived the name PULAKESHIN from two SANSKRIT words PULA (Great) and KESIN (Lion) , meaning by a Great Lion . He has further theorized that PULAKESHIN was initially a KADAMBA vassal , and later declared independence by taking control of the area around VATAPI . It is said that his son KIRTTIVARMAN I was behind all the victory of PULAKESHIN I .

KING KIRTTIVARMAN OF THE CHALUKYA OF BADAMI

KIRTTIVARMAN was a ruler of CHALUKYA DYNASTY of VATAPI or BADAMI , who ruled from 566 AD to 592 AD . He was the son of PULAKESHIN I and his successor was his brother  MANGALESHA . He ruled over parts of area comprising of present day KARNATKA , GOA , MAHARASTRA and ANDHRA PRADESH . He expanded the CHALUKYA Kingdom by defeating the NALAS , the MAURYAS of KONKAN , the KADAMBAS , the ALUPAS , and the GANGAS of TALAKAD . CHALUKYA DYNASTY’S inscriptions call him with different names , as the GODACHI inscription calls him KRITTI-ARASA , the MAHAKUTA PILLAR inscription of his brother MANGALESHA compares him to the legendary king PURU-RANA- PARAKARMA (valourous in war like PURU) . Some of the family epithets call him SHRI-PRITHVI-VALLABHA , VALLABH, and SATYASHRAYA .The AIHOLE inscription of his son PULAKESHIN II states that KIRTTIVARMAN was “the night of doom” for the NALAS , the MAURYAS , and the KADAMBAS . He obtained “pure fame” by defeating the rulers KADAMBAS of BANAVASI and its branches including the GANGAS and the SENDRAKAS , who , later on , were made vassals of the CHALUKYAS , after KIRTTIVARMAN’S victory . He married a sister of the SENDRAKA king SHRI-VALLABHA SENANADA .The GODACHI inscription states that he was well-versed in the SHASTRAS and SMRITIS . The MAHAKUTA PILLAR inscription of his brother MANGALESHA states that MANGALESHA constructed a VISHNU temple on his order . He had three sons : 1. PULAKESHIN II , VISHNUVARDHANA and BUDDHA-VARASA . KIRTTIVARMAN was succeeded by his brother MANGALESHA , who was succeeded by PULAKESHIN II , the elder son of KIRTTIVARMAN I .

KING MANGALESHA

MANGALESHA was the third king of the CHALUKYA DYNASTY of VATAPI or BADAMI , who ruled from 592 AD to 610 AD. He succeeded his brother KIRTTIVARMAN I on the throne . His kingdom stretched from southern GUJARAT in north to BELLARY- KURNOOL region in the south . In short , it included parts of present-day GUJARAT , MAHARASTRA , GOA , KARNATKA , and ANDHRA PRADESH . King MANGALESHA had expanded his Kingdom upto GUJARAT and MAHARASTRA after defeating the KALACHURI king BUDDHARAJA . He consolidated his rule in the KONKAN Coastal region of the present-day MAHARASTRA and GOA after conquering REVATI-DVIPA from the rebel CHALUKYA governor SVAMIRAJA . But his reign ended when he lost a war of succession to his nephew and the elder son of KIRTTIVARMAN I , PULAKESHIN II . However , the name MANGALESHA literally means “prosperous lord”. He was a VAISHNAVITE and constructed a VISHNU temple during the reign of his brother KIRTTIVARMAN I . But he was tolerant of other sects also .

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THE CHALUKYA DYNASTY

From Northern INDIA , we must move to the Dynasties of Southern INDIA .The CHALUKYA DYNASTY is one of them . It was a classical INDIAN DYNASTY that ruled larger parts of Southern and Central INDIA between the 6th and 12th centuries .They were natives of KARNATKA . Its founder was PULAKESHIN I and its greatest ruler was PULAKESHIN II . Its predeceding state was KADAMBAS and succeeding state was RASHTRAKUTA . Its capital was VATAPI or BADAMI . During that period , they ruled as three closely related individual dynasties. They were : 1. THE BADAMI CHALUKYA ; 2. THE EASTERN CHALUKYA ; and 3. THE WESTERN CHALUKYA .The earliest Dynasty , known as the BADAMI CHALUKYA , ruled from their capital at BADAMI .They ruled from the middle of the 6th century .They asserted their independence at the decline of KADAMBA kingdom of BANAVASI and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of PULAKESHIN II . But after his death , the EASTERN CHALUKYA became an independent kingdom in the eastern DECCAN .They ruled from capital VENGI until about the eleventh century . In the western DECCAN , the rise of the RASHTRAKUTAS in the middle of the 8th century eclipsed the CHALUKYA of BADAMI before being revived by their descendants , the WESTERN CHALUKYA in the tenth century .Those WESTERN CHALUKYA ruled from BASAVAKALYAN till the end of the twelve century .

ORIGINS OF CHALUKYA

According to most of the historians the CHALUKYAS were natives of KARNATKA . The theory wich tells that they were descendants of a 2nd-century chieftain called KANDACHALIKI REMMANAKA , a feudatory of the ANDHRA IKSHAVAKU , has been refuted by a historian like KAMATH on the ground that this has failed to explain the difference in lineage .The KANDACHALIKI feudatory called themselves VASHISTHIPUTRAS of the HIRANYAKAGOTRA , while the CHALUKYAS , addressed themselves as HARITHIPUTRAS of MANAVYASAGOTRA in their inscriptions , which appeared to be the same lineage as KADAMBAS of BANAVASI had .This shows that they were the descendants of KADAMBAS . On the other hand , the northern origin theory claims that a ruler of AYODHYA came to the south . He defeated the PULLAVAS and married a PULLAVA princess . Her child called VIJAYADITY , who is claimed to the father of PULAKESHIN I . But historians like K.V. RAMESH , CHOPRA and SASTRI , referring to BADAMI CHALUKYA inscriptions which confirm that JAYASIMHA was the grandfather of PULAKESHIN I and RANARAGA was his father , have refuted this theory .The KASHMIRI poet BILHANA suggests that the CHALUKYA family belonged to the SHUDRAS , while to HIUEN-TSANG , the CHALUKYA king PULAKESHIN II was a KSHATRIYA by birth because he loved “military arts” . However , the historian S. C. NANDINATH suggests that the CHALUKYA originated from KANNADA agriculturist family . But most of historians unanimously believe that the CHALUKYAS were from KARNATKA .

HISTORICAL SOURCES OF CHALUKYA

Inscriptions in SANSKRIT and KANNADA are the main sources of information of the history of BADAMI CHALUKYA . Historical sources of this Dynasty also include the BADAMI CAVE INSCRIPTIONS of MANGALESHA (578 AD) , KAPPE ARABHATTA record of 700 AD , the KANCHI KAILASANATHA TEMPLE INSCRIPTIONS , PEDDAVADUGURU INSCRIPTION of PULAKESHIN II and PATTADAKAL VIRUPAKSHA TEMPLE INSCRIPTION of VIKRAMADITYA II .They all are in the KANNADA language and provide information regarding CHALUKYA DYNASTY . On the other hand , the BADAMI cliff inscription of PULAKESHIN I (543 AD) , the MAHAKUTA pillar inscription of MANGALESHA (595 AD) and AIHOLE inscription of PULAKESHIN II (634 AD) are some of the SANSKRIT inscriptions written in the old KANNADA scripts , are important sources of information about CHALUKYAS . Several coins of the BADAMI CHALUKYA , with KANNADA legends , have also been found which tell how KANNADA language flourished with the emergence of BADAMI CHALUKYA in the region of KARNATKA .The CHINESE BUDDHIST traveler HIUEN-TSANG visited the court of PULAKESHIN II . At the time of his visit PULAKESHIN II had divided his empire into three MAHARASHTRAKAS (Great Provinces) , each comprising of 99,000 villages . Probably they covered modern day KARNATKA , MAHARASTRA and the Coastal KONKAN . HIUEN-TSANG has praised this administrative division of the Empire by PULAKESHIN II .The PERSIAN Emperor KHOSRAU II had exchanged ambassadors with Emperor PULAKESHIN II which shows that how the CHALUKYA kingdom had got importance that time .

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HARSHA VARDHANA

HARSHA VARDHANA was a PUSHYABHUTI Emperor who ruled Northern India from 606-647 AD . He was the son of PRABHAKAR VARDHANA and queen YASOMATI . He succeeded his elder brother RAJYAVARDHANA after his death . He was born in 590 AD in THANESHVARA (HARYANA) and died in 647 AD in KANNAUJ (UTTAR PRADESH) . He made KANYAKUBJA (KANNAUJ) as his capital . His realm covered much of northern and northwestern INDIA , with NARMADA river had its southern boundary . However , he was defeated by Emperor PULAKESHIN II of the CHALUKYA DYNASTY in the battle of NARMADA , when he was trying to expand his empire Southward . A centre of cosmopolitanism , his court was a place of peace and prosperity .The CHINESE traveler HIUEN-TSANG visited the Imperial court of HARSHA VARDHANA . He had written a very favourable account of him , praising his justice and generosity .The SANSKRIT poet BANABHATTA and writer of HARSHACHARITA has described his association with THANESHVARA , besides mentioning a defensive wall , a moat and a palace with a two-storied DHAVALAGRIHA (white mansion) . A historian like K. P. JAISWAL in IMPERIAL HISTORY OF INDIA, quoting a 7-8 century BUDDHIST text , MANJUSRI – MULA KALPA , states that HARSHA was born of king VISHNU (VARDHANA) and his family was of VAISHYA VARNA .

HIS REIGN

After the fall of the prior GUPTA EMPIRE , HARSHA united the small republics from PUNJAB to Central INDIA .Their representatives crowned him Emperor in an assembly in April 606 , giving him the title of  MAHARAJADHIRAJA .Thus, he established an empire that brought all of northern INDIA under his rule . Peace and prosperity prevailed during his reign . After the defeat from PULAKESHIN II of the CHALUKYA DYNASTY in the winter of 618-619 AD on the bank of NARMADA river , he concluded a treaty with PULAKESHIN II , with the NARMADA river designated as the border between the CHALUKYA EMPIRE and that of HARSHA VARDHANA . HIUEN-TSANG in his account has mentioned this event in the following words : “SHILADITYARAJA (i.e., HARSHA) , filled with confidence , marched at the head of his troops to contend with this prince (i.e., PULAKESHIN) ; but he was unable to prevail upon or subjugat him .” He has further written that HARSHA waged wars to bring “the five Indias under alliance” in six years .The term “five Indias” used by HIUEN-TSANG , refers to HARSHA’S territory in Northern INDIA or to the entire subcontinent , grouped around Central INDIA in the four directions . Though HARSHA VARDHANA was the most powerful Emperor of northern INDIA , yet he didn’t rule the entire northern INDIA at all .

HARSHA’S RELIGIOUS POLICY

HARSHA was eclectic in his religious views and practices . His seals describe that his ancestors were worshipers of the HINDU Sun God SURYA . His elder brother RAJYAVARDHANA was a BUDDHIST . And HARSHA VARDHANA was a SHAIVITE HINDU . His land grant inscription describe him as PARAMAMAHESHVARA ( Supreme devotee of SHIVA) . His court poet ,  BANAVATTA , also describes him as a SHAIVITE HINDU . According to the the CHINESE traveler HIUEN-TSANG , HARSHA was a devout BUDDHIST . He has stated that HARSHA had banned animal slaughter for food , and built monasteries at the places visited by GAUTAM BUDDHA . He had also erected several thousand 100-feet high STUPAS on the bank of river GANGES . He also built hospices for travelers and poor people on highways across INDIA . He also organized an annual assembly of global scholars and bestowed charitable alms on them . And every five years , he held a great assembly called MOKSHA . HIUEN-TSANG has vividly described about a 21-day religious festival organized by HARSHA in KANYAKUBJA (KANNAUJ) . Special thing about that festival was that HARSHA and his subordinate kings performed daily rituals before a life-sized golden statue of the BUDDHA . However , historians like S. R. GOYAL and S. V. SOHONI has written that HARSHA was personally a SHAIVITE HINDU but his patronage to BUDDHISTS misled HIUEN-TSANG who portrayed him as a BUDDHIST.

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PUSHYABHUTI DYNASTY

VARDHANA or PUSHYABHUTI DYNASTY was one of the small independent kingdoms formed after the downfall of the GUPTA Empire . PRABHAKAR VARDHANA , the ruler of THANESHVARA was the founder of the VARDHANA or PUSHYABHUTI DYNASTY . The Kingdom was situated in and around what is known as HARYANA now . Its capital was THANESHVARA , later known as KANNAUJ (Presently in the state of UTTAR PRADESH) . The PUSHYABHUTIS established a powerful kingdom vying with other regional powers for political supremacy in INDIA .The most notable ruler of this Dynasty was HARSHA (606-647 AD) . Under HARSHA or HARSHA VARDHANA , PUSHYABHUTIS achieved Imperial status . However , it was short-lived . For that we must know the political conditions of INDIA in the 6th century AD . After the fall of the GUPTA EMPIRE and in absence of any other empire , political disintegration of the Northern INDIA started . So, along with PUSHYABHUTIS , there arose a number of similarly independent powers like the MAUKHARIS of KANYAKUBJA , the Later GUPTAS of MAGADHA , GAUDA KINGDOM under SHASHANK in the western part of BENGAL etc.

PRABHAKAR VARDHANA

There are two key primary sources to know about the PUSHYABHUTI DYNASTY .The first is the Accounts of a CHINESE BUDDHIST pilgrim HIUEN-TSANG and the second is the HARSHACHARITA (the biography of HARSHA) written by his court poet BANABHATTA or BANA (7th century AD) . PRABHAKAR VARDHANA (680-605 AD) has been described by BANA as “as a proud , he was vexed by his proud ambitions”. He was a warrior king who fought many enemies and thus expanded his Kingdom and assumed the title of MAHARAJADHIRAJA (Lord of great kings) . He was at frequent war with the HUNAS . However , it is not clear whether he defeated them or merely fought with them at different regions . But he made the PUSHYAMITRAS a power to reckon with . He took the advantage of the eclipse of MAUKHARI power after the death of King ISHANAVARMAN (6th century AD) but maintained cordial relation with them by marrying his daughter RAJYASHRI to the contemporary MAUKHARI king GRAHAVARMAN .

RAJYAVARDHANA

RAJYAVARDHANA was the eldest son of PRABHAKAR VARDHANA and queen YASOMATI . He ascended the throne after his father’s death . He reigned from 605-606 AD only . Historian like R. C. MAJUMDAR is of the opinion that he succeeded after the death of his father only in 604 AD . But to KAUSHIK ROY , RAJYAVARDHANA was coronated in 606 AD . However , most of the historical records suggest that RAJYAVARDHANA succeeded PRABHAKAR VARDHANA in 605 AD .The marriage of his sister RAJYASHRI with GRAHAVARMAN, a MAUKHARI king of KANNAUJ , strengthened the tie between two families . It was quite unacceptable to SHASHANKA , the ruler of GAUDA KINGDOM of BENGAL .This caused SHASHANKA alliance with the king of MALVA .They both surprisingly attacked at the MAUKHARI’S capital at KANNAUJ . And GRAHAVARMAN was killed and his queen and the sister of RAJYAVARDHANA , RAJYSHRI was captured . It caused RAJYAVARDHANA to retaliate in turn . With a 10,000 strong cavalry force , he became successful in defeating the MALAVA ruler , with the main army of infantry and war elephants supporting it under the charge of his younger brother HARSHA VARDHANA . But RAJYAVARDHANA was treacherously murdered by SHASHANKA , the GAUDA ruler of BENGAL in 606 AD . And HARSHA VARDHANA succeeded RAJYAVARDHANA as the ruler of THANESHVARA and vowed to avenge his elder brother’s death .

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KUMARAGUPTA III

KUMARAGUPTA III was the son of Emperor NARASIMHAGUPTA and queen SHRIMITRADEVA . He reigned from 530-540 AD . His silver-copper seal discovered in BHITARI (UP) in 1889 mentions the names of his father as NARASIMHAGUPTA and his grandfather as PURUGUPTA . A clay sealing of him discovered from NALANDA also mentions about his father and grandfather . But the fact is that the GUPTA EMPIRE started to decline during his rule . Many internal and external challenges he had to face now . King YADHODHARMAN of MALVA , who had once defeated HUNA king MIHIRAKULA at SONDANI , had started conquering Northern INDIA . A historian like J. L. JAIN is of the opinion that KUMARAGUPTA III was killed during this conflict . His father NARASIMHAGUPTA committed suicide on hearing the news . And KUMARAGUPTA III was succeeded by his son VISHNU GUPTA whose reign lasted for ten years from 540-550 AD .The successor of VISHNU GUPTA is unknown . This simple denotes that the GUPTA DYNASTY had by now ended .

POST-GUPTA SUCCESSOR DYNASTIES

The GUPTAS were succeeded by the MAUKHARI DYNASTY and the PUSHYABHUTI DYNASTY . In the western regions , they were succeeded by the GURJARAS , the PRATIHARAS , and later the CHAULUKYA-PARAMARA DYNASTY . A few were the most powerful dynasties , but most of them were principalities . As coinage of the MAUKHARIS and the PUSHYABHUTIS followed the silver coin type of the GUPTAS . It featured portrait of the ruler in profile and the peacock on the reverse .The BRAHMI legend were being kept except for the name of the ruler . On the other hand , CHAULUKYA-PARAMARA issued so-called INDO-SASANIAN coinage . Such coinage were introduced in INDIA by the ALCHON HUNS .

MAUKHARI DYNASTY

The MAUKHARI DYNASTY was a post-GUPTA Dynasty who controlled the vast plains of GANGA-YAMUNA for over six generations from 510-606 AD . Their capital was at KANYAKUBJA .They were KSHATRIYAS who belonged to the CHANDRAVAMSHA or Lunar race .The Lunar Dynasty is a legendary principal house of the KSHATRIYA VARNA .They were mentioned as warrior-ruling caste in the ancient INDIAN texts .They earlier served as the vassals of the GUPTAS and later of HARSHA’S of VARDHANA DYNASTY .The MAUKHARIS after establishing their independent rule in the sixth century , ruled over much of the UTTAR PRADESH and MAGADHA . However , around 606 AD , a large area if their empire was reconquered by the later GUPTAS .To HIUEN-TSANG , the territories might have been lost to king SHASHANK of the GAUDA kingdom , who declared independence on 600 AD .

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PURUGUPTA

PURUGUPTA was an Emperor of the GUPTA DYNASTY of INDIA . He reigned from 467- 473 AD . He was the son of the GUPTA Emperor KUMARAGUPTA I by his queen ANANTADEVI . He succeeded his half brother SKANDAGUPTA . We don’t have any inscription on the name of PURUGUPTA . However , he is known from the BHITARI PILLAR SILVER-COPPER SEAL of his grandson KUMARAGUPTA III . NALANDA CLAY SEALINGS of his sons NARSIMHA GUPTA and BUDDHA GUPTA also tell many things about PURUGUPTA . From SARNATH BUDDHA IMAGE INSCRIPTION , it is concluded that he was succeeded by KUMARAGUPTA II . Nothing more is known about him . An image of GAUTAM BUDDHA at SARNATH only mentions that KUMARAGUPTA II succeeded PURUGUPTA.

BUDHAGUPTA

A GUPTA Emperor , BUDHAGUPTA was the successor of KUMARAGUPTA II , who reigned from 476-495 AD . He was the son of PURUGUPTA and succeeded by NARASIMHAGUPTA . He was the follower of HINDUISM . As he had closer tie with the rulers of KANNAUJ . They both together drove out the HUNS from the northern plains of INDIA .The DAMODARPUR COPPER-PLATE INSCRIPTION states that  PUNDRAVARDHANA BHUKTI (North BENGAL) was ruled by his two viceroys (UPARIKAS) — BRAHAMDATTA and JAYADATTA . Similarly , ERAN STONE PILLAR INSCRIPTION mentions that BUDHAGUPTA as Emperor , and under whom SURASHMICHANDRA was governing the land between the YAMUNA and the NARMADA . A pedestal of a BUDDHA statue at GOVINDO-NAGAR near MATHURA is the only known epigraphic evidence which shows that BUDHAGUPTA’S reign extended up to MATHURA in the north . There are two standing BUDDHA images from SARNATH are known as the “Gift of ABHAYAMITRA in 157 (477 AD) in reign of BUDHAGUPTA”. These two images are kept in the SARNATH museum . Similarly , there are also stone inscriptions in VARANASI and ERAN  and a seal from NALANDA which mention BUDHAGUPTA as the ruler . Apart from that several copper plates have also been found which mention the name of BUDHAGUPTA as a ruler .

NARASIMHAGUPTA

NARASIMHAGUPTA or BALADITYA was the GUPTA Emperor from 495 AD to 530 AD . He was the son of PURUGUPTA and probably the successor of BUDHAGUPTA . To XUANZANG (HIUEN-TSANG) , a CHINESE traveler and a BUDDHIST MONK of the seventh century , has mentioned that NARASIMHAGUPTA had to pay tribute to the HUNA king MIHIRAKULA . He has further written that BALADITYA along with YADHODHARMAN of MALVA is credited with driving the ALCHON HUNS from the plains of North INDIA . The Accounts written in 630 AD by XUANGZANG mentioned that MIHIRAKULA had conquered all INDIA except for an island where the king of MAGADHA named as BALADITYA or NARASIMHAGUPTA took refuge . But MIHIRAKULA was finally captured by the INDIAN king , who later spared his life . MIHIRAKULA is said to have returned to KASHMIR to retake the throne . Traditionally GUPTAS had been a HINDU DYNASTY . But to a contemporary writer like PARAMARTHA , NARASIMHAGUPTA BALADITYA was brought under the influence of the MAHAYANA philosopher VASUBANDHU . He built a SANGHARAMA in NALANDA , which , to ZUANGZANG , resembled the “Great Vihara built under the Bodhi tree”. According to MANJUSHRIMULAKALPA (800 AD) , NARASIMHAGUPTA became a BUDDHIST MONK , and left this world through meditation .

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SKANDAGUPTA

SKANDAGUPTA was a GUPTA Emperor of INDIA who ruled from 455 AD to 467 AD . He is considered as the last of the great GUPTA Emperors . He was the son of the GUPTA Emperor KUMARAGUPTA I . His mother’s name is unknown because she appears to be a junior queen or a concubine of KUMARAGUPTA I . SKANDAGUPTA ascended the throne in year 136 of the GUPTA ERA .To the BHITARI PILLAR INSCRIPTION , he restored “the fallen fortunes of his family”. It further says that after defeating his enemies , he visited his widower mother , whose eyes were “full of tears from joy” . He repulsed an invasion by the  INDO-HEPHTHALITES (HUNS) , probably the KIDARITES . He seems to have control over his inherited territory . According to one theory , these enemies invaded the GUPTA Empire during the last years of KUMARAGUPTA’S reign , or shortly after his death . And SKANDAGUPTA defeated them all . Other theory states that the conflict referred to in the BHITARI PILLAR INSCRIPTION resulted from a disputed succession to the throne . However , JUNAGARDH INSCRIPTION states that after his father’s death , SKANDAGUPTA became “ruler of the earth” by his own prowess . This also suggests that he acquired the throne by using force , because his mother was probably a junior wife of KUMARAGUPTA I rather than the chief queen , therefore his claim to the throne was not legitimate .The JUNAGARDH INSCRIPTION further states that LAKSHMI, the Goddess of Fortune (as per the HINDU tradition) , chose SKANDAGUPTA as her husband after rejecting all other “sons of kings”.This may be exaggeration of the historical facts . So, some of the historians have identified the woman as a queen of SKANDAGUPTA rather than the Goddess LAKSHMI .

CONFLICT WITH THE HUNS

HUNS invaded INDIA during the period of SKANDAGUPTA from the northwest . Though the date of HUNS’ invasion is not certain , yet the BHITARI PILLAR INSCRIPTION suggests by describing the conflict with the PUSHYAMITRAS or YUDHYAMITRAS during the reign of SKANDAGUPTA . Similarly , JUNAGARDH INSCRIPTION reads that it might happened at the beginning of the SKANDAGUPTA’S reign or during the reign of his father KUMARAGUPTA . It says ,”….. whose [SKANDAGUPTA’S] fame , moreover , even [his] enemies , in the countries of mlechchhas ….. having their pride broken down to very root , announce with the words “verily the victory has been achieved by him.” The victory against the Mlechchhas happened in 455-456 AD , when  SKANDAGUPTA ascended the throne .These Mlechchhas were none other than HUNS . Some historians opines that when SKANDAGUPTA was sent to check the HUNS’ invasion at the frontier , KUMARAGUPTA died in the capital while this conflict was on . And SKANDAGUPTA returned to the capital and overcame the rival claimant to ascend the throne . SKANDAGUPTA was most probably succeeded by his half-brother PURUGUPTA.

COINAGE OF SKANDAGUPTA

Compare to his predecessors ,  SKANDAGUPTA issued fewer gold coins . It shows that by the time gold had become a very precious metal and its availability was limited . Secondly , it also shows that the GUPTA economy had  started declining . Various wars fought by SKANDAGUPTA might have strained the state treasury . However , he issued five types of gold coins which were as follows : 1. ARCHER TYPE ; 2. KING AND QUEEN-TYPE ; 3. CHHATRA TYPE ; 4. LION-SLAYER TYPE ; and 5. HORSEMAN TYPE . His silver coins were of four types : 1. GARUDA TYPE ; 2. BULL TYPE ; 3. ALTAR TYPE ; and 4. MADHYADESHA TYPE .The initial gold coinage was on the old weight standard used by his father KUMARAGUPTA .They were approximately of 8.4 gm .This initial coinage is very scarce now . Later on , SKANDAGUPTA revalued his  gold coins which weighed approximately 9.2 gm. These later coins were only of the ARCHER TYPE . And this standard was followed by all  subsequently GUPTA rulers .

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KUMARAGUPTA I

KUMARAGUPTA I was the son of GUPTA Emperor CHANDRAGUPTA II and queen DHRUVADEVI , who ruled from 415 AD to 455 AD . He maintained control over his inherited territory from GUJARAT in the west to BENGAL in the east . He had inherited a vast empire built upon the conquests of his father CHANDRAGUPTA II and his grandfather SAMUDRAGUPTA . His Garuda-inscribed coins have been discovered in western INDIA , and his Peacock-inscribed coins have been discovered in the GANGES Valley . This suggests that he had control over the territory he had inherited . On the other hand , his inscriptions have been found in MADHYA PRADESH , UTTAR PRADESH , WEST BENGAL and BANGLADESH which show that his empire was extended to those places also . Similarly , inscription of his son have been discovered from GUJARAT , which shows that his empire spread up to GUJARAT in the western INDIA . He used to worship the war God KARTTIKEYA and his old coins suggest that he had performed ASHWAMEDHA YAGNA , a sacrifice used by the ancient kings to claim his Sovereignty over the area from where his horse used cross .These activities further show that his regime was not devoid of wars , thus , extention of his Empire during his period might also be possible . 13 coins have been found from ACHALPUR and 1395 silver coins from SAMAND from SATARA district , show that his regime extended up to MAHARASTRA . KUMARAGUPTA’S rhinoceros -slayer coins may possibly indicate that his empire might be extended up to KAMARUPA (ASSAM) .

ADMINISTRATION OF KUMARAGUPTA I

Epigraphic evidence suggests that KUMARAGUPTA I ruled his empire through Governors called UPARIKAS .These UPARIKAS used to administer various provinces . Provinces were called BHUKTIS . VISHYAPATIS were the head of VISHAYAS (districts) .They were supported by an advisory council comprising : 1. NAGARA- SHRESHTIN (Mayor) ; 2. SARTHAVAHA (the representatives of the merchant guild) ; 3. PRATHAMA-KULIKA (the chief of the artisan guild) ; and 4. PRATHAMA- KAYASTHA (the chief of guild of scribes) .  GHATOTKACHA-GUPTA governed the ERAN region during KUMARAGUPTA I . He was the son of the younger brother of KUMARAGUPTA I . CHIRATA-DUTTA ruled the PUNDRAVARDHANA-BHUKTI (BENGAL) from 443 AD to 447 AD as a subordinate of KUMARAGUPTA I .The KARAMDANDA inscription of 436 AD  mentions about PRITHIVISHENA , KUMARAMATYA (Minister) of KUMARAGUPTA I , who later on became his MAHABALADHIKRITA (General) . His father SHIKHARASVAMIN had also served KUMARAGUPTA’S KUMARAMATYA . KUMARAGUPTA I had established deplomatic relations with the LIU SUNG , the Emperor of CHINA .This caused visiting of the CHINESE delegation to INDIA and vice versa .

COINAGE OF KUMARAGUPTA I

KUMARAGUPTA I issued largest varieties of coins . To TEJ RAM SHARMA , out of 628 coins in the BAYANA hoards belong to 14 different types .The varieties of coins include the following : 1. ARCHER TYPE ; 2. HORSEMAN TYPE ; 3. SWORDSMAN TYPE ;  4. LION-SLAYER TYPE ; 5. TIGER-SLAYER TYPE ; 6. ELEPHANT- RIDER TYPE ; 7. ELEPHANT-TIDER LION-SLAYER TYPE ; 8. RHINOCEROS- SLAYER TYPE ; 9. ASHWAMEDHA-TYPE ; 10. KARTTIKEYA TYPE ; 11. CHHATRA TYPE ; 12. APRATIGHA-TYPE ; 13. LYRIST TYPE ; and 14. KING AND QUEEN-TYPE . Some repousse coins , discovered at KHAIRATAL , qhave also been attributed to KUMARAGUPTA I .These coins depict Garuda-inscribed with ostrachated wings and legend MAHENDRAADITYA in one sides and other sides are black . Possibility is that these coins may be or may not be issued by KUMARAGUPTA I . V.A. SMITH reads the dates of some of the coins of KUMARAGUPTA I as early as 455 AD . According to some historians , the last years of KUMARAGUPTA’S reign were not peaceful . This theory is based on MANKUWAR BUDDHA inscription of 448 AD issued during his reign . Similarly , the BHITARI PILLAR inscription of his son SKANDA GUPTA also tells so , as there arose disputes between his two sons SAKANDA GUPA and PURU GUPTA for the succession to the throne .

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NAVARATNAS OF CHANDRAGUPTA II

NAVARATNAS imply a group of nine extraordinary persons in an Emperor’s court in INDIA . According to the folk tradition , CHANDRAGUPTA VIKRAMADITYA had nine famous Scholars in his court .They were : 1. AMARASIMHA ; 2. DHANVANTARI ; 3. GHATKHARPAR ; 4. KALIDAS ; 5. KSHAPANAKA ; 6. SHANKU ; 7. VARAHAMIHIRA ; 8. VARARUCHI ; 9. VETALA-BHATTA . JYOTIRVIDABHARANA , a treatise attributed to KALIDAS , states that nine famous scholars known as NAVARATNAS (nine gems) attended the court of the legendary VIKRAMADITYA . But there is no historical evidence that could show that these nine scholars were contemporary figures of the same king i.e CHANDRAGUPTA VIKRAMADITYA . So, a historian like D.C. SIRCAR calls this tradition “absolutely worthless for the historical purposes”. However , scholars like WILLIAM JONES , A.B. KEITH and VASUDEV VISHNU MIRASHI are of the opinion that one of these NAVARATNAS— KALIDAS was certainly the court poet of CHANDRAGUPTA II .

ADMINISTRATION OF CHANDRAGUPTA II

Various historical records state about ministers and officers of CHANDRAGUPTA II .The UDAYAGIRI INSCRIPTION says that VIRASENA was his foreign minister who constructed a SHIVA temple . Similarly , the SANCHI INSCRIPTION states that AMRAKARDVA was a military officer of his time who gave donations to the local BUDDHIST MONASTERY .To historian like K.P. JAYASWAL , SHIKHARA-SVAMI , who was a minister of CHANDRAGUPTA II , was the author of the political treatise called KAMANDAKIYA NITI . Similarly some of the historical records have mentioned about how feudatories of CHANDRAGUPTA II functioned during that period . MAHARAJA SANAKANIKA , a feudatory known from UDAYAGIRI INSCRIPTION , had constructed a VAISHNAVA temple .  A GAYA INSCRIPTION states that MAHARAJA TRIKAMALA had engraved on a BODHISTTVA image .The inscription of MAHARAJA SVAMIDASSA , the ruler of VALKHA , is dated in the KALACHURI CALANDER ERA .Thus , the entire administration of CHANDRAGUPTA II was feudatory in nature .These feudatories were very powerful and later became troublesome for the GUPTA EMPIRE .

COINAGE OF CHANDRAGUPTA II

CHANDRAGUPTA II continued most of the gold coins of his father SAMUDRAGUPTA . These coins were the Sceptre type , the Archer type , and the Tiger-slayer type . However , CHANDRAGUPTA II also introduced several new types of coinage like the Horseman type and the Lion-slayer type . His most of the coins depict his martial spirit or peacetime pursuits . Historian R.C. MAJUMDAR has theorized that CHANDRAGUPTA‘S conquest of GUJARAT , where Asiatic lions are found , resulted in the substitution of tiger with lion on the Imperial coins .The legend of SIMHA-VIKRAMA could be seen on the gold coins of CHANDRAGUPTA II in which he was shown as the slayer of a lion and bear . Such coins are called the Lion-slayer type . In those coins where CHANDRAGUPTA II was seated on a couch and holding a flower in his right hand , are called the Couch-and -flower type .The “rup-kriti” legend occurs below the couch .The coins , depicting that the king is riding a fully-caparisoned horse , are called the Rider type . Moreover , CHANDRAGUPTA II was the first GUPTA king, who issued silver coins .The purpose of issuing of such coins was to replace the silver coinage of the WESTERN KSHATRAPAS . As CHANDRAGUPTA II had defeated them , these coins were modeled on the KSHATRAPA coinage .

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