INDIA , THAT IS BHARAT -A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE, #BHARAT[PART-64][EP-293]

CHOLA ART & ARCHITECTURE

The CHOLAS utilized their wealth earned through their extensive conquests in building long-lasting stone temples . Since the CHOLAS followed HINDUISM, most of their temples were related to the HINDU  culture and religion .The CHOLA artists were influenced by AMARAVATI SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE which they took from the PULLAVAS .The CHOLA artists and artisans further drew their influences from other contemporary art and architectural schools . All these helped to make the CHOLA architecture so great .The CHOLA kings built numerous temples throughout their kingdom and adjoining parts of KARNATKA and ANDHRA PRADESH .  Apart from temples , the CHOLAS built many buildings such as hospitals , palaces and buildings of public utilities . All these are mentioned in their inscriptions and in contemporary accounts .The Golden Palace that ADITYA KARIKALA built for his father SUNDARA CHOLA is one of the finest example of such a building . However , many of them were built of perishable materials like timber and fire bricks have not survived for long .The CHOLA kings like ADITYA I and PARANTAKA I were prolific builders . Inscriptions of ADITYA I suggest that he made a number of temples along the banks of the river KAVERI ,though much smaller in comparison to huge monumental structures built by the LATER CHOLAS . The VIJAYALAYA CHOLEESWARAM near PUDUKKOTTAI in TAMIL NADU is an example of a surviving early CHOLA building .The style of this structure clearly shows PULLAVA influences on the design of the structure . Architectural historian JEMES FERGUSSON has written ,“The CHOLA artists conceived like giants and finished like jewelers .” The CHOLA art , that became the special feature of the DRAVIDIAN ARCHITECTURE in the later years , was the addition of a huge gateway called GOPURAM to the enclosure of a temple . And we must know that it was developed under the PANDYA DYNASTY . Moreover , the CHOLA SCHOOL OF ART spread to Southeast ASIA which was the region of influences of the great CHOLA EMPIRE .

LITERATURE , RELIGION & SOCIETY

LITERATURE

Literature flourished during the CHOLA DYNASTY . During the reign of KULOTHUNGA III , KAMBAR wrote epic poem called RAMAVATARAM . Also called KAMBARAMAYANAM is a classic of TAMIL literature . KAMBAR’S description of KOSALA is an idealized account of the features CHOLA country . JAYAMKONDAR’S KALINGATTUPARANI is an example of narrative poetry describing the events during  KULOTHUNGA’S war in  KALINGA . It draws a clear boundary between history and fictitious conventions. The TAMIL poet OTTAKUTTAN was a contemporary of KULOTHUNGA I . He served at the courts of three KULOTHUNGA’S successors . He wrote KULOTHUNGA CHOLAN ULA which is a poem depicting the virtues of the CHOLA king . NANNUL is a work of TAMIL grammar , written during the CHOLA period . Similarly , TELUGU-CHODA was significant for the development of the TELUGU literature . TELUGU poets TIKKANA , KETANA , MARANA and SOMANA were active during that period . TIKKANA translated MAHABHARATA into TELUGU .The SHAIVITE canon into eleven books was the work of NAMBI ANDAR NAMBI , who lived closer to the end of the 10th century .

RELIGION

The CHOLAS were followers of HINDUISM . They built their largest and most important temple dedicated to LORD SHIVA .The second CHOLA king ADITYA I (871 AD -903 AD) built temples for LORD SHIVA and LORD VISHNU . Many inscriptions of 890 AD, refer to his contributions to the construction of RANGANATHA temple at SRIRANGAPATNAM in the WESTERN GANGAS , who were both his feudatories and had connections by marriage with him . PARANTAKA II was a devotee of the reclining LORD VISHNU at ANBIL , TIRUCHY . He gave numerous gifts and embellishments . He prayed before LORD VISHNU for regaining territories in and around KANCHI and ARCOT from waning RASHTRAKUTA . PARANTAKA CHOLA I and PARANTAKA CHOLA II endowed and built temples for LORD SHIVA and LORD VISHNU . On the other hand , RAJARAJA CHOLA I patronized BUDDHISM . He also provided for the construction of the CHUDAMANI VIHARA in NAGAPATTINAM at the request of SRI CHULAMANIVARMAN, the SRIVIJAYA SHAILENDRA king . It is said that CHOLA king KRIMIKANTA II , who was suffering from cancer of the throat or neck , had persecuted the VAISHNAVITE guru called RAMANUJACHARYA . However , his son KULOTHUNGA CHOLA II was a staunch VAISHNAVITE who made his nephew DASARATHI a disciple of RAMANUJACHARYA and then granted the management of RANGANATHASWAMY to DASARATHI as per the wishes of RAMANUJACHARYA .

SOCIETY

During the CHOLA period several guilds , communities and castes emerged . In the south INDIA , merchants organized themselves into various guilds .The MANIGRAMAM and AYYAVOLE were well known guilds existed during the CHOLA period . Members of VELLALAR caste were sent to Northern SRI LANKA by the CHOLA rulers as settlers .The ULAVAR caste were agricultural labours . KALAMAR were peasants .The KAIKOLAR community were weavers and merchants .They also maintained armies . During the reign of IMPERIAL CHOLAS , there were major changes in the temple administration and land ownership . Now more and more Non-BRAHMIN people were involved in the temple administration .This could be attributed to the shift in the financial power . Skilled classes like weavers and merchants now became prosperous . Prosperity prevailed in the society . But there are numerous reports of widespread famine caused by natural calamities . Despite that level of literacy and education was quite high . Vocational education was through hereditary training , in which father passed on his skills to his sons . TAMIL was the medium of instruction for the masses . Monasteries were centres of learning . They were called MATHA or GAYIKA . Justice system was quite fair during the CHOLA period .The kings were often described as SENGOL-VALAVAN , which means the king who established the just rule .

CHOLA ECONOMY

Land revenue and trade tax were main source of income for the state .The CHOLA kings issued coins in gold , silver and copper.The CHOLA economy was based on three tiers : 1. At the local level ; 2. At the level of NAGARAM (towns) ; and 3. At redistribution center level . At the top of the economy were the elite merchants groups called SAMAYAM who dominated internal and external trades .The main export of the CHOLA EMPIRE was cotton cloth . URAIYUR , the capital of the early CHOLAS , was a centre of cotton textiles. Weavers were encouraged by the king to produce more and more clothes , so that state could get more revenue from their trade .The SALIYAR and KAIKOLAR were the main weaving communities during the early medieval CHOLAS . KANCHIPURAM became one of the main centers for silk . Metal crafts peaked during the 10th and 11th centuries due to state encouragement . Wootz steel was a major CHOLA export . Farmers occupied one of the highest positions in society . VELLALAR community formed the landed aristocracy .They constituted the courtiers , the army officers , the lower rank of bureaucracy and upper rank of peasantry . All the cultivable land was was held in one of the three broad classes of tenure: 1. Vellan-vagai (Peasant proprietorship ; 2. Service tenure ; and 3. Eleemosynary (tenure resulting from charitable gifts) . Vellan-vagai were the ordinary ryotwari village even of the modern period also . RAJENDRA CHOLA I dug artificial lake filled with water from the KOLERUN and the VELLAR rivers for irrigation purposes . Merchants organized into guilds were called MANADESIS .These were powerful autonomous corporations of merchants . Local organizations of merchants were called NAGARAM in big centre of trade like KANCHIPURAM and MAMALLAPURAM .

NOTE : THE SOURCES OF THE BLOG ARE TEXT BOOKS AND OTHER WRITTEN MATERIALS ON THE SUBJECT .

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